Die site “Culture Plaza” des “China Tibet Information Centers” gibt einige kurze Überblicke in tibetische Literatur, Kunst, Handwerk und auch archeologische Forschung.
Besonders interessant zu Geschichte und Archeologie sind folgende Unterpunkte:

• Tibet Rock Painting
• The Mystery of Leshan Tombs
• Bangar New Stone Age Ruins in Shannan
• Lesser Enda Tuins in Qamdo
• Rescuing Ancient Ruins in Ngari
• Ancient Place: Ruins of the “Guge Kingdom”
• Donggar Frescos and Rutog Rock Paitings
  
• Qoigung Ruins
• Qamdo Karub Relics
• Walls Piled of Human Skull in North Tibet

(Da chinesische sites gelegentlich abgeschaltet werden, sind im folgenden die Texte wiedergegeben.)

Rock Paintings in Tibet by Zhang Yasha

Rock Paintings in China
Rock paintings in China can be divided into southern and northern schools.
Southern school rock paintings depict mainly religious rituals and are painted in red. They are distributed in an area from southwest to south China.
Northern school rock paintings, carved into rocks, show hunting activities in north China. They are distributed in an area from the northeast to northwest and southwest. The part from northeast to southwest China extends from Heilongjiang to Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang and Tibet. Once in Inner Mongolia, the rock paintings moved northwestward in two ways: one way connected with Central Asia via Altaishan, Tianshan and Kunlunshan Mountains, and the Pamir Plateau; the other way linked up with Central Asia via Yingshan, Helanshan and Qilianshan Mountains, and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.
When rock paintings entered the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, they did not exclusively follow the road to Central Asia. Instead, they moved across northern and western Tibet, and began to move southward in Changtang to meet those from northwest Sichuan and northwest Yunnan.
Rock paintings in Tibet belong to the northern school. So far as themes are concerned, they depict hunting and religious rituals.
When rock paintings were created in ancient Tibet, their creators not intend to record what had happened or were happening then: tribal production, wars and religious rituals.
DISTRIBUTION.
Incomplete statistics show there are more than 5,000 rock paintings at some 60 sites in 14 counties in Tibet. They are mostly distributed in western and northern Tibet and the plateau area on the middle and upper reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River, which is what we call the Changtang (meaning grasslands in Tibetan). Changtang covers an area 2,400 km long and 700 km wide, with an elevation averaging over 4,500 meters. Rock paintings are concentrated mainly in Ngari and Nagqu. Rock paintings in the western part were carved into rocks, and a small number of these are painted in red. They are distributed mainly in Ritog County, with major sites remaining along the Tibet-Xinjiang Highway. In ancient times, this part of the world was a major passageway to Kashmir, Central Asia and the Western Regions.
Rock paintings in Ritog reveal the fact that the area used to be home to a variety of ethnic tribes. In the Leopard Chases Deer, the deer is elegantly decorated with an inverted “S” or whorl patterns, displaying the Euro-Asian grassland ethnic art style in the north.
Rock paintings in western Tibet depict local activities. Worshipping With Blood found in Renmudong, Migration or Transportation found in Khamba, Sorcerers, with hairs all over and decorated with feathers in the head, found in Luri Namka, Organized Hunting or Herding, and Sacrificial Rituals all show that western Tibet was unbelievably prosperous for a considerably prolonged period of time in history. Rock paintings were highly likely to be connected with the Zhangzhung Culture in central or western Tibet, showing its strong presence at the time.
Rock paintings in northern Tibet are represented by those in Gyialing Mountain and dwelling cave rock paintings by Nam Co Lake. A large rock painting complex at Gyialing Mountain is mentioned by locals as “holy painting”. On the 50-plus pieces of rocks are carved animals, people, trees and symbols, displaying hunting, taming animals, herding and fighting activities.
Dwelling cave rock paintings by the Nam Co Lake (including those in Qido Mountain and Zhaxi Island on its western bank) contain the content of Buddhist culture, showing they are later than those in Gyialing Mountain and western Tibet. A few rock paintings by the Nam Co Lake were painted colorfully, describing hunting, fighting and dancing. They contain many symbols related to Buddhism and Buddhist rituals such as sacrificial ones.
PERIODS.
Earliest rock paintings were found to be 3,000 years old. They include those in Gyialing Mountain in northern Tibet and Alung Gully in western Tibet. Other rock paintings date from a period 3,000-2,000 years ago; they are concentrated in the western part of Tibet. Rock paintings of the later generation are represented by those found in dwelling caves on the bank of the Nam Co Lake in northern Tibet; they were most likely created during the Tubo Kingdom.
Yaks stand conspicuously in what are described in rock paintings in Tibet, largely because yaks were much used for transportation purposes and were vital to Tibetan livelihood. As a kind of art form, however, rock paintings exaggerated the animals, especially in their back and horns. In some cases, the body of a yak was carved into the rock, with a large tail and small head, and highlighted by short yet strong legs. Their horns bend 180 degrees or even 360 degrees.
Rock paintings created in later period were not all chiseled out. The yak body becomes longer and comparatively thinner, with a small and pointed head. They adopt a running stance. Such rock paintings are found mainly in the western part of Tibet, mostly in Takaamba and Renmodong.
There are also yaks with rectangular-shaped body, small head, bent horn, and arched back. A salient feature is long, drooping hair on the belly. Though such yaks do not impress viewers with their running stance as seen in other rock paintings, their giant belly with drooping hair catches the viewers’ attention. What is most interesting is that they bear symbols of the sun, the moon or the swastika.
SWASTIKA.
Swastika is the second most representative pattern in rock paintings in Tibet. Such a symbol appeared during the Tubo period when Buddhism had made its way into the region. It could be found in rock paintings of various stages in western, northern and southern Tibet.
Generally speaking, in rock paintings, the swastika does not exist independently. It co-exists with other objects, including the sun, the moon, trees, certain animals (very often being placed on giant, fat yaks), sorcerers, banners or patterns representing dwelling tents, and some circles. This shows the swastika was closely related to production and life, and religious rituals. What is hard to understand is its association with trees. In the Tibetan Plateau, trees were hardly seen at high altitude. Very often, trees are seen in rock paintings covering an area of hundreds of square km, where no trees could be found. What does tree mean in the rock paintings? No matter what is the answer, the fact is that tree held an important position in the minds of those who created these rock paintings. There are historical records that describe a God Tree in western Ngari, Tibet. There, people paid sacrifices to the God Tree. As a matter of fact, the Tibetans worshiped trees in their daily life.

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The Mystery of Leshan Tombs

　　Leshan is the name of a peak in Nang County, Tibet. At its foot is Lecun Village, home to some 20 households.
　　In the summer of 1993, a group of Beijing and Lhasa archaeologists reached Lecun, which is surrounded by up to 100 tombs. These have been largely ignored for more than 1,000 years. The archaeologists worked on the site for about one month.
　　The tombs spread along a mountain slope. To the south is the Jindongqu River that flows from east to west, emptying into the Yarlung Zangbo River. Further south, are mountain ranges.
Wooden structure bearing Tibetan letters found at Leshan in 1994.
　　This was the third excavation, the first being in 1982. They found 210 tombs that spread over an area of about 500,000 square meters. Most of the tombs were concentrated in the eastern part.
　　While some tombs take the shape of a square, others are ladder-shaped or round. They are varied in size, with the smallest only a dozen cm above ground. Built with stone and wood, they are typical Tibetan.
　　In 1993, Tomb No.12 was opened. With rims extending 5-6 meters, the tomb has four walls built with large pieces of rock, and is propped up with wooden pillars. In the western wall is the door. Nothing valuable was found in the chamber.
　　Tomb No.155 is filled with pebbles, dirt and wood. Square wooden structures, each one-meter long, were found inside the chamber. Finely polished, some of them bore Tibetan letters-showing that something resembling a brush was used. Carbon testing showed they were 1,275 years-contemporary with the Tubo Kingdom.
　　From this, the archaeologists concluded it might be a tomb of a Tibetan king of the Tubo period. But further efforts must be made to unlock the mystery.

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Bangar New Stone Age Ruins in Shannan by SHARGE WANGDUI

The Banggar New Stone Age Ruins is located to the north of Bangar Village, Xiashui Town, Qoingyi County, Shannan Prefecture. First excavation took place in the 1980s. From September to October 2000, the Archaeological Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the Tibet Museum and the Cultural Relics Bureau of Shannan Prefecture jointly surveyed the site, and returned with new findings.
DISCOVERIES. The ruins extend 100 meters long and 30 meters wide. Recent survey uncovered 99 fragments of pottery wares and 186 pieces of stone artifacts.
The 99 fragments of pottery wares included fragments of jar mouths, fragments covered with line designes, pottery handles and potter sculptures in the shape of sheep. They were mainly grayish brown oens, with changes at the jar mouth or jar handles. Some of the pottery basins are round at the bottom.
All the 186 pieces of stone artifacts were chipped or ground ones; none of them was refinedly polished. Most of them are milling stones. Others were used for smashing, chopping or other purposes.
The ruins is composed mainly of ruins of houses, ash pits and stone frames. From what have been found from the ruins, the archaeologists came to the conclusion that the ruins was highly likely to be the ruins of a housing in the shape of a square, with southern walls measuring 4 meters and western walls less than 3 meters. Inside the house were five round pits each with a diameter of 0.6 meters and a depth of 0.4-0.7 meters. They were highly likely to be used to store things.
A sheep bone was unearthed, which was processed comparatively refinedly.
TREASURE HOUSE. From what were found from the ruins the archaeologists came to the conclusion it was in existence during the late New Stone Age, some 3,000 years ago. It bears many similarities with the Qugong Ruins in the Lhasa River Valley and the Qamgo
Gully Ruins in Gonggar, Shannan on the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River.
It was the first time a housing ruins was found at the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River. The found housing ruins bears difference with housing sites found from the Karub Culture.
A study of the folklore shows that, in the pastoral area in Nagqu, residents dig pits when putting up tents. Each pit measures 0.5-0.6 meter deep, and stone walls are built around them. In the Yarlung area, Shannan, which is held as the cradle of the Tibetan race, housing were built during the New Stone Age some 3,000 years ago. Housing style prevalent then is still retained today.

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Lesser Enda Tuins in Qamdo by LU YING

The Lesser Enda Ruins are located 5 km north of the Qamdo County seat. Lying on the northern bank of the Ongqu River, it is close to a village and primary school. Some 800 meters to its east is the Lesser Enda Township, covering an area of 10,000 meters. In October 2000, Tugar, Director of the Cultural Bureau of the Qamdo Prefecture, and I went to view the ruins.
As our vehicle stopped by the highway skirting the ruins, we followed an earthen path upward. A stone tablet stood by an adobe wall, inscribed with “Lesser Enda Ruins.” “Is this all?” I asked myself.
We moved to the Lesser Enda Primary School. Its door was half open. In the playground, some folks were enjoying the sunshine and a few calves grazed leisurely. Director Tugar, having brought me to an empty land, said: “Here was the excavation site.”
The Lesser Enda Ruins were discovered in 1986, and a ditch, which was 2 meters wide and 10 meters long, was dug. Red clay bricks, stone artifacts, bones and pottery were found. They were dated back some 4,000-5,000 years to the Karub Culture in Qamdo. From what was found, the archaeologists came to the conclusion that here was a settlement of primitive society.
According to Director Tugar, the pit was refilled with a view to protecting the site. He showed me a one-kg stone artifact unearthed then.
Upon returning home to Beijing, I went to see Hou Shizhu, with the China Cultural Relics Research Institute, showing him fragments of pottery and bones I had brought back. Hou was involved in the excavation of the Karub Ruins in Qamdo, and was an expert in the Karub Culture. He came to the conclusion that these relics were authentic.
Hou took me to the Paleo-Vertebrate Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. There, we talked to Huang Weiwen, an expert in artifacts of the Old Stone Age. However, he failed to give us a definite answer. We then went to Wu Xinzhi, also with the Research Institute.
He examined the bones and came to the conclusion that they were most probably animal bones. As he failed to determine the key parts of the animal bones, he failed to give us a more definite answer.

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Rescuing Ancient Ruins in Ngari by MYIMA

The ruins of an ancient castle are perched along a high terrace on the southern bank of a river basin in Ngari, western Tibet. Some 700 years ago, this was the center of the Guge Kingdom, whose rulers fostered and nurtured the spread of Buddhism. Their kingdom survived and thrived for some 500 years. During this period, many monasteries and buildings were erected. The ruins and relics attract numerous Tibetologists and archaeologists.
With the arrival of the 1970s, archaeologists began to study the history of the Guge Kingdom and the surrounding Zhangzhong culture. A campaign also began to repair and restore the ancient ruins at Ngari.
According to Gyiayang, the director of the Cultural Relics Bureau of the Tibet Autonomous Region, the central government has offered limited funds for the protection of cultural relics in Tibet, including work on the ruins of the Guge Kingdom and the Donggar Piyang Grottoes.
“However, this small sum has helped very little,” Gyiayang adds, pointing out, “these ruins had been abandoned for more than 300 years.”
“In 1996, the State Cultural Relics Administration and the Cultural Relics Bureau of the Tibet Autonomous Region formed a joint team to inspect the ruins at Ngari. The team produced a schedule for the restoration of the ruins of the Guge Kingdom and the Donggar Piyang Grottoes.
“In March of 1997, a meeting was held in Beijing to discuss the means for the repair of the ruins at Ngari. Soon after the meeting, a team of experts were sent from the State Cultural Relics Administration, the Shaanxi Provincial Archeological Research Institute, the Hebei Provincial Ancient Architecture Research Institute, the China Cultural Relics Research Institute, the Palace Museum and Sichuan Lianhe University.
“In late April of 1997, a restoration team made up of more than 40 people led by Ngawang Lhozhul left Lhasa for Ngari.
In order to guarantee the accuracy of the renovations, all of the mud and water used in the adobe structures and every rock or piece of lumber came from the local area and was collected by the team under the scorching summer sun. The ruins of the Guge Kingdom, located in Zhada County, are nestled into the mountain slopes skirting the Xianquanhe River. Gyide Nyima, an offspring of the Tubo king Lang Darma, built the city in the early 10th century. The ruins cover an area of 720,000 square meters. They included what remains of over 400 monasteries and Buddhist halls, 58 castle towers, close to 1,000 caves, four underground tunnels, 28 dagobas and 11 storage houses and other buildings.
“After the Guge Kingdom was overthrown in the mid-17th century, the city was gradually abandoned,” explains Director Gyiayang. “Thanks to an unusually dry weather, the adobe-stone-wood structures of the ancient castle survived for many centuries.”
“Five buildings, including the Red Hall and the White Hall, are exceptionally well preserved. Inside are frescoes that not only show us something of the culture, but are also of high artistic value.
“However, the ruins fall prey to merciless, heavy rainfall during the rainy season.”
The repair team works very hard on the ruins. Team members check each corner of the ruins. On this basis, they have shifted the drainage of rainwater by filling underground channels and laying pipelines. Efforts have also been made to reinforce the ceilings.
Courtesy of TIBET CULTURAL RELICS BUREAU
Herculean efforts were made to repair the Toding Monastery.
The Toding Monastery, located in the seat of Zhada County, was built against a clay mountain along the banks of the Xianquanhe River. It includes Buddhist halls, intact dagobas, broken dagoba walls and the living quarters of the monks. It is famous among the Tibetans because it was once the residence of Master Adisha and the venue of the Grand Summonsing Ceremony held in the Year of the Dragon. The monastery is known to all in Tibet and is a cultural relic under national protection.
The repair of the monastery demanded incredible efforts since it is still a functioning monastery and many monks live on the grounds.
The renovation and restoration team was able to restore much of the monastery to its original condition and to partially restore some other areas.
The Donggar Piyang Grottoes have been repaired over a period of prolonged preservation.
The Donggar Piyang Grottoes, spread along a 30-kilometer narrow clay cliff to the northeast of the Zhada county seat, are actually located in two villages. The Donggar and Piyang villages are both under the jurisdiction of Donggar Township. The two villages are two kilometers apart.
The grottoes in Donggar are found on a mountain slope 500 meters north of Donggar Village. They are actually three niches along a row. The tops of the grottoes are square outside and round inside, in the shape of Mandalas. The frescoes in the grottoes are surprisingly well preserved, to the delight of visitors.
The renovation of the Donggar Grottoes has focused on reinforcing the grottoes walls and further protecting the frescoes. A drainage system has been laid in order to aid in this work.
The grottoes in Piyang are found on a mountain slope 500 meters west of Piyang Village. The clay mountainside is nearly entirely covered with Buddhist grottoes, dagobas, and Buddhist halls. Efforts have been made to restore the sutra halls and grottoes where part of their frescoes are well preserved.

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Ancient Place: Ruins of the “Guge Kingdom”

　　More than 1,000 years ago, a powerful kingdom with a splendid civilization was born here. But after over 700 years of rule, the kingdom was destroyed by internal disorder and invasion from the outside. What is left here are the ruins of the capital of the Guge Kingdom. Located in Zhada County, the ruins are well-known throughout the world and are under key protection of the State.
　　Zhada County, more than 3,800 meters above the sea level, is famous for the ruins of the Guge Kingdom and the vast stretches of clay forests peculiar to it. Most of the visitors who travel to Ngari come in order to visit Zhada and the Guge. Xiangquanhe River, one of the four large rivers in Ngari, runs through Zhada, but the majority of the county is dry desert. The clay forests cover several hundred square kilometers, in various unique shapes. The county town of Zhada and the ruins of Guge, which are 18 km away from the county town, are surrounded by uninterrupted clay forests. The scene is really a wonderful view created by the uncanny workmanship of nature.
　　”Guge” is a miracle. For years it strongly attracted numerous explorers, scholars, artists and journalists who traveled from afar to investigate and search for treasures. According to historical records, after the last king of the Tubo Dynasty, Lang Darma, died, the royal family began to fight for the throne. Gyide Nyimagun, Long Darma’s descendent, lost the war and ran away to Ngari, where he established a small kingdom. Later, Gyide Nyimagun divided Ngari into three parts and gave them to his three sons. The Guge Kingdom was ruled by Dezogun, Gyide Nyimagun’s third son. His regime ran for more than 700 years before being destroyed in a war. According to the Annals of Kings and Officials in Tibet, a total of 16 kings ruled the Guge Kingdom, and Guge Castle was accomplished through constant construction between the 10th and 16th century. Guge has a very significant position in the history of economic and cultural development of Tibet. Many significant Buddhist doctrines of ancient India were passed on to hinterland Tibet via Guge.Guge was also one of the important commercial ports linking ancient Tibet with the outside world.After the Tubo Dynasty died out,Tibet entered a 400-some year period of isolation. Guge was always a large and powerful kingdom. Even the dust of time cannot hide its prosperity and past glory.
　　The ruins, located on the small hill of Zhabyran on the southern bank of Xiangquanhe River in Zhada County, cover an area of 720,000 square meters. The buildings follow the hill to its top in a rigid layout and an imposing manner. The castle is more than 300 meters high. It is home to houses, caves, pagodas, blockhouses, defense works and tunnels. The previously stylish caves are now seriously damaged. Few works of architecture remain intact. Although the Guge, through its hardship in history, has lost its prosperity and graceful manner, its appearance is still imposing. It leaves a valuable history and numerous legends.
　　There are a total of 1,416 surviving pieces of architecture, including 879 caves, 445 houses, 60 blockhouses, 28 pagodas, and four tunnels, which lead in all directions inside the architectural group. At the outer ring there are walls made of loess, which are decorated with many figures of Buddha, scriptures and incantations in Tibetan, and Sanskrit engraved on large cobbles. The houses within the ruins have wooden structures and level roofs. The larger works of architecture include the Red Temple, the White Temple, the king’s palace and the meeting hall. The White Temple and the Red Temple are about the same size, covering about 300 square meters. Within the temple there are 36 square pillars. The pillars and the ceiling are covered with colored drawings of patterns and figures of Buddha, and all the walls are covered with frescoes of different subjects. The White Temple boasts a precious mural painting of successive kings of Tubo and the genealogy of the Guge king. The most attractive mural painting in the Red Temple depicts the King of Ngari Yeshe’o greeting Adisha, Buddhist master of ancient India. The painting also vividly portrays a group of girls dancing to the accompaniment of drums and horns. Even with the passing of several hundred years, these frescos remain bright and lustrous. Having been neglected for years, both the Red Temple and White Temple are dilapidated. In 1987, the commission in charge of cultural relics of the Tibet Autonomous Region organized a group of technicians to repair them.
　　The only path from the base of the hill to the palace halls on the hilltop is a man-made tunnel. The upper part of the Guge Castle holds the Winter Hall and Summer Hall, where the royal family lived. They are empty now. Only the frescos and wooden engravings in Tancheng Hall are well preserved. Guge’s colored paintings, frescos and sculptures are rich works of a high artistic level and immense research value.
　　The Guge ruins are a historical and cultural treasure. To rescue and protect the precious relics, the State sent a relic investigation team to the ruins in 1959. In 1961, the State Council put the ruins under key State protection. In 1987, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage allocated a huge sum for the repairing of the Guge Castle, and the next year, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage, the Department of Culture of the Tibet Autonomous Region and Ngari Prefectural Government carried out six key maintenance projects based on a number of field studies. The year 1997 witnessed one more rescuing and repairing of the ruins under the instruction of the Tibet Autonomous Regional Government and the State Administration of Cultural Heritage. Surrounding the Guge ruins are running clay forests which look like a “great wall” safeguarding Guge. The noted Xiangquanhe River is not far away. “Guge” seems to be an encyclopedia, with a long history, deeply-rooted culture, mystic legends and many unfathomable enigmas. The ruins of the Guge Kingdom, standing on the desolate land, silently relate the history and give forth the light of art.
　　Besides the ruins of the Guge Kingdom, Ngari also boasts a number of noted monasteries, temples and ruins, including the Toding Monastery at the county town of Zhada, the Kegya monastery in Burang County, the Rutog Monastery in Rutog County, and the Doshang and Shangze ruins. They constitute the valuable historical and cultural heritage left by the ancestors of the Tibetan ethnic group.

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Donggar Frescos and Rutog Rock Paitings

　　The vast stretches of the Ngari Plateau were once home to the capitals of the ancient Zhangzhung and Guge kingdoms. Ngari Plateau is also the birthplace of the Bon Religion, an age-old Tibetan religion. Buddhism was passed on to hinterland Tibet via this plateau as well. During their long history, ancestors of the Tibetan ethnic group created a splendid culture and left the Ngari Plateau numerous historical treasures, including Donggar frescos and Rutog rock paintings. Donggar frescos are a recent and important archaeological discovery made by cultural heritage departments in Tibet. They are yet another form of China’s cave art, and provide the missing link on the subject of ancient Buddhist cave art in western Tibet. The frescoes also provide important material for studying the history of the well-known Guge Kingdom.
　　Donggar is a small village with a dozen households in Zhada County. At the foot of a mountain and standing by a river, it is about 40 km northwest of the ruins of the Guge Kingdom. The archaeologists unearthed two grottos, one on the cliff adjacent to the Donggar Village and one in the neighboring Piyang Village. They are the largest Buddhist caves so far discovered in Tibet. Relatively well preserved Donggar frescos are concentrated in three caves half way up the mountain. There are no records of their formation in the numerous Tibetan historic, religious and cultural files, and they remain a cultural mystery that has yet to be fathomed. However, one thing is sure - the grotto frescos have a history of nearly 1,000 years and are of high archaeological and research value.
　　These frescos are well-knit, with smooth, easy lines, bright colors and unique designs. They have substantial content, including exotic figures, patterns and designs. Painted with a special mineral dye, the frescos still appear new after such a long period of time and will never fade. The major themes of the frescos include figures of Buddha and images of Bodhisattvas, protectors of Dharma, men with unnatural strength, legendary stories about Buddhism, pictures of expounding Buddhist texts, and pictures of worshipping Buddha, as well as various decorating patterns like peacocks, dragon fish, two dragons twinning, two phoenixes standing opposite each other, and the Tantric Mandala. Some of the animals in the frescos, like the dragon, phoenix, lion, horse, sheep, cattle, wild goose, duck and elephant, are not native to the Ngari Plateau. Most commonly depicted are heavenly girls in vivid and varying shapes. The Donggar frescos display a colorful and figurative universe. According to preliminary investigation, there were different types of cave groups, including caves for worshipping Buddha, caves where monks lived and caves for the storage of sundry objects. The exquisite and marvelous frescos are the remains of caves for worshipping Buddha. To protect these two places of wonder, the Donggar and Piyang grottos remain unopened to the public.
　　Rock art is a kind of stone carving culture. During the early development of human society, humans used stones as tools to describe and record their way of production and life through a simple and natural form - stone inscription. This phenomenon in early society has become precious cultural heritage left by human ancestors. Recently, a large number of rock paintings have been discovered in the Gerze, Ge’gyai and Rutog counties, which have a high elevation in western and northern Tibet. These drawings are carved on stones with hard rocks or other hard objects, making both deep and shallow lines. There are a few colorfully painted pictures. The rock paintings have a wide range of contents, including hunting, sacrificial rites, riding, domestic animal herding, and farming, as well as the sun and moon, mountains, cattle, horses, sheep, donkeys, antelopes, houses and people. Of these rock paintings, those discovered in Rutog County are most outstanding. The rock paintings at a dozen places within Rutog, including Risum Rimodong and Lorinaka are not only large in size and great in number, but are also of high artistic value.
　　Ngari was once the capital of the ancient Zhangzhung Kingdom. Zhangzhung writing was created by the ancestors of the Tibetan ethnic group and appeared before Tibetan writing. The rock paintings which appeared in the same period as Zhangzhung writing are of great significance to studies in the history, culture and early human life in Ngari and Tibet at large.

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Qoigung Ruins
　　
　　In October 1983, Tibetan archaeologists unearthed artifacts at Qoigung Village in the Nyangri Gully, north of Lhasa. These artifacts revealed aspects of civilization in Lhasa from 4,000 years ago and earlier. They were found in ash pits and tombs that contained stone coffins with bodies with folded limbs. More than 10,000 kinds of objects and a large number of animal bones were found. Objects included stone knives, stone axes, stone shovels, grinding stones, bone awls, bone needles; and bone arrow heads were also found. One of the bone needles had an eye as if for thread, resembling the sewing needles we use today. Large quantities of hand-made pottery were also uncovered in the ruins. Gray, polished black or brown in color, they display sawtooth- and string-like patterns, as well as carved patterns formed with awls. These artifacts provide evidence that there were people living in areas around Lhasa more than 4,000 years ago, and that they lived on farming, livestock breeding, hunting and gathering. Fishing net pendulums and fish bones uncovered in the ruins reveal that Lhasa River then teemed with fish, and that the locals had a habit of eating fish.
　　The Qoigung ruins cover an area of 5,000 square meters, only a part of which have been unearthed. More artifacts are expected to be found.

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Qamdo Karub Relics

　　All the relics of the Stone Age in Tibet were discovered after 1951 as a result of tens of years efforts by archaeolo-gists.
　　Among the relics of Neolithic Period that have been discovered, there are Karub of Qamdo, Yunsing, Hongkung, Jumu and Gyarama of Nyingchi County, Bai-bung and Marniyong of Medog County, Qukong of eastern Lhasa and Qinba and Ngariza of Nedong County. Among these, only the relics in Karub have been scientifically exca-vated and classified.
　　The Karub relics were discovered in 1977 and excavat-ed in the summer of 1978. A total area of 230 square meters was opened at that time. The second excavation was carried out in 1979 with another 1,570 square meters opened. The relics cover a total of 10,000 square meters. This means the major part of the relics were discovered after the second ex-cavation.
　　The Karub relics are located 12km south to Qamdo of Tibet. It is on trianglular terrain near Karub, which is to the west of Lanchang River at an altitude of 3,100 meters. They are so far the highest Neolithic remains ever found in China. The two excavations cleared 28 remains of houses, 7,968 pieces of stone tools, 366 pieces of bone tools, more than 20,000 pieces of pottery parts, 50 pieces of ornamen-tations, millets and animal skeletons.
　　The history of the Karub site dates back 4,000 to 5, 000 years ago, according to radioactive-carbon testing. It represents rich local features of primitive culture. First, the production tools show a complete picture of the Neolithic age, revealing a co-existence of ground stone tools, fine stone tools and grained stoneware with beaten stoneware most prevalent. Second, the pottery is hand-made, and sometimes mixed with sand. The line decoration is mainly chiseled and dotted. Flat-bottom vases, bowls and pots are commonly found. Most of the structures are made of large stone blocks, such as stone-walled houses, stone roads, round-stone tables and stone circles.
　　The above features of the Karub relics show that Karub Culture is representative of the Neolithic culture of the Ti-betan Plateau. other Neolithic cultures found in Tibet are all similar or influenced by the Karub Culture.
　　The Karub Culture did not develop independently on the Tibetan Plateau by itself. Rather, it has definite con-nections with the primitive culture in the upper-and middle-reaches of the Yellow River. Beaten stoneware has been discovered in the loess of the Yalong River and Dadu River to its east. To its north, there exist the Majiayao Culture and Panshanma Culture of more than 4,000 to 5,000 years ago. Karub seems to have had close cultural exchange with these two regions in the past. The same kind of beaten stoneware found in Karub has also been discovered in other Neolithic relics in Gansu and the upper reaches of the Yel-low River. The round and semi-square houses of the early phase of Karub Culture is the same traditional living form as that of Majiayao Culture in Gansu and Qinghai. The millet found in Karub is the traditional agricultural product of the Yellow River, which is seldom grown in the south. Millet in Karub was probably brought from the Majiayao Culture.
　　Karub relics provide detailed proofs of the origin of Ti-betan ethnic group. It shows the Di and Qiang tribes from the north only formed a small part of the ancestors of Ti-betans. In fact, primitive clans had lived in Tibet since be-fore the Stone Age. It tells that human beings have lived in the vast land of Tibetan Plateau for a very long time.

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Walls Piled of Human Skull in North Tibet by ZHANG GUOYUN

I long heard of walls piled up with human skulls in the Dordorka Celestial Ground in north Tibet. But I never knew anyone who had seen such walls.
When I told some of my friends about my understanding of the phenomenon, one of them, a senior Tibetologist, advised me to visit Biru County.
“Go there, and you will see these walls piled up with human skulls,” he said.
Seeing suspicion in my eyes, he showed me pictures taken by Mr. Cao Changjin from Biru County. Indeed, these were pictures of human skull walls!
Lured by this discovery, I recently paid a visit to Dordorka in Biru.
Biru County is 300 km from Nagqu Town. Meaning “horn of female yaks,” the county is home to the Dordorka Celestial Burial Ground. And the human skull walls are located inside the Ground.
Legend has it that Zhigungba Renqenbai set up the Zhigungti Monastery in Maizhokunggar County in 1179, and worked hard to press ahead with perfecting the celestial burial system to mark the legendary fact that Sakyamuni, founder of Buddhism, cut off his flesh to feed a tiger.
However, an analysis of what have been found from some ancient tombs in Tibet shows that the system began in the 7th century.
When a celestial burial ritual is held, aromatic plants are burnt for smoke to guide the soul to reach the Ground. The human body serves as a sacrificial object to the Goddess and other deities, who are requested to take the soul of the dead up to Heaven.
As a matter of fact, smoke resulting from burning aromatic plants lures the hawks, “holy birds” in the eyes of the Tibetans. The body is laid on a piece of stone slab measuring 60 cm high, which lies by a pond built with pebbles. The body, in a sitting stance, is sliced. Its bones fall prey to hawks first. The Master in charge of the ritual does so because hawks tend to shun bones.
The Ground covers 4,000 square meters, and is surrounded by man-high clay walls on four sizes. The southern and western walls are complete with wooden frames each with four to five layers piled with human skulls. Only after seeing this did I come to understand that the human skull walls are product of the celestial burial system.
Historical records say there should be three human skull walls in the Ground. But downpours compressed them during a rainy season. The two human skull walls I saw were actually piled up in the past few decades, and are only half the height of the original.
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STORY OF HUMAN SKULL WALLS
There are two explanations as to why human skulls are preserved and used to build walls:
Explanation I: Some 80 years ago, a KMT army officer killed two civilians in Tibet. A boy who witnessed the tragedy reported to the 5th Living Buddha Dagbo in Biru County. The Living Buddha appointed him the master in charge of the Celestial Burial Ground of the Dharma Monastery. In the ensuing years, the boy master left heads of dead brought for celestial burial at the corner of the southeastern wall. When they were reduced to skulls, the master piled them up from the northeastern to the southwestern corners. He did so with a view to preventing the KMT army officer from sneaking into the Ground. The master kept doing this until he died when he was over 50.
Explanation II: Human skull walls were built according to the stipulation of the Living Buddha Dapu Dainba Wozhub (also called Baima Baizha) with the Qudai Monastery in Biru County during the period of the 13th Dalai Lama. This was intended to warning the living against perpetrating evil: Whomever you are when you live, you will be like this (human skull) after death.